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Free U.S. shipping on orders over $150SS-31 is a small, 4-amino acid, mitochondria-targeting peptide, found to have antioxidant and cell-protective effects [1]. Made up of alternating aromatic and basic amino acids, it contains a dimethyl tyrosine residue that neutralizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) and prevents lipid peroxidation [1].
Pharmacologically, SS-31 is water-soluble, stable, and resistant to enzymatic breakdown [1]. It can easily penetrate cell membranes due to its structure. It is distributed widely throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the kidneys, and is completely excreted in urine [1]. Clinical studies show it is generally safe, with only mild side effects at the injection site, and no serious problems reported [1].
Once within cells, SS-31 rapidly accumulates in the inner mitochondrial membrane, up to 5,000 times more than in the surrounding cellular environment. Inside the mitochondria, it stabilizes cardiolipin, a critical phospholipid involved in the electron transport chain [1]. By doing so, SS-31 reduces electron leakage, preserves mitochondrial structure, and enhances ATP production [1].
Because cardiolipin damage has been implicated in various conditions such as neurodegeneration, heart failure, and mitochondrial myopathies, SS-31 has been studied as a novel therapeutic and promising candidate for conditions driven by mitochondrial dysfunction [2].
SS-31 attaches to cardiolipin, a phospholipid found within the inner layer of the mitochondria that helps maintain structure and stability [3]. In doing so, it protects cardiolipin and supports the electron transport chain [4]. This allows SS-31 to improve ATP production and counteract the impacts of oxidative stress [4]. SS-31 also activates specific antioxidant pathways, upregulating specific proteins that help protect against oxidative stress and ferroptosis cell damage [2].
Clinical and pre clinical studies have demonstrated its protective activities in cardiac, neurological, renal, and skeletal muscle tissues [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. In models of spinal cord injuries, it also has neuroprotective activities [10].
SS-31, through cardiolipin binding, preserves cristae architecture and supports efficient ATP production and electron transport [11]. As a strong antioxidant, it scavenges mitochondrial ROS to restore membrane potential and enhance the cell’s ATP generation [3]. Together, these mechanisms explain why SS-31 can maintain mitochondrial morphology, and prevent swelling and depolarization under stress conditions [12]. SS-31 upregulates SIRT1 expression, which suggests it may improve mitochondrial resilience and cellular metabolism through gene regulation [13].
Cardiolipin stabilization from SS-31 also prevents its peroxidation, reducing cytochrome C leakage and activation of apoptotic pathways [10]. SS-31 lowers caspase-3 activity, shifts specific pathways towards cell survival, and reduces DNA fragmentation to prevent apoptosis [14].
SS-31 protects and restores heart health, particularly in conditions associated with heart failure, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and decreased blood flow [15]. By binding and stabilizing within mitochondrial membranes, SS-31 lowers oxidative stress and improves energy production [16]. In models of aging hearts, it restores healthy diastolic function and lowers oxidative damage without interfering with systolic function [16]. SS-31 repairs age-related changes in important heart proteins, improving muscle relaxation and resilience [17].
In models of cardiomyopathy and heart failure, SS-31 prevents apoptosis, limits scarring and thickening of cardiac muscle, and improves overall energy efficiency [5]. This remains even when blood pressure remains high [18]. It also strengthens aerobic metabolism, helping the heart meet high energy demands [19].
Within the blood vessels, SS-31 lowers inflammation, stabilizes atherosclerotic plaques, and enhances ATP production [20]. In ischemia-reperfusion, SS-31 reduces tissue damage and speeds recovery [21].
SS-31 can neutralize reactive oxygen species and provide protection for mitochondrial membranes [22]. By binding cardiolipin, SS-31 prevents cardiolipin peroxidation, which helps preserve mitochondrial integrity, limit cytochrome C leakage, and protect against mitochondrial dysfunction [23]. One study found SS-31 was able to prevent depletion of key antioxidant enzymes, including myeloperoxidase and superoxide dismutase, helping maintain redox balance [24]. By limiting oxidative damage, SS-31 can preserve mitochondrial energy output, limiting further ROS generation.
SS-31 also has anti-inflammatory impacts, with research finding it can lower levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in lung tissue. These cytokines are key mediators of inflammatory and fibrotic signaling [22]. Because high ROS amplifies profibrotic pathways, reducing ROS indirectly lowers inflammation and fibrosis. Through its impacts on myeloperoxidase, SS-31 reduces neutrophil-driven tissue injury and inflammation [22].
Research Use Only. All findings described above are derived from preclinical studies (animal models and in vitro experiments). SS-31 is not approved by the FDA for any diagnostic or therapeutic use in humans. Genesis Peptides makes no claims regarding human clinical efficacy. This product is sold exclusively for laboratory research.
Every lot undergoes six independent assays before release. Results are published in the lot-specific Certificate of Analysis.
Every lot undergoes our 6-panel testing protocol: identification by ESI-MS, purification by RP-HPLC, conformity, sterility screening, quantification of net peptide content, and LAL endotoxin screening. Full analytical data is published in the Certificate of Analysis for each lot.
Lyophilized peptides should be stored at -20°C or below for long-term stability. Once reconstituted, peptides should be stored at 2–8°C and used within a reasonable timeframe depending on the specific compound. Avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles. Always store in a dry environment away from direct light.
Orders are processed within 1–3 business days after payment confirmation. Orders placed after 3:00 PM Pacific time or on weekends and holidays will begin processing the next business day. We offer free standard shipping on orders over $150. All orders are shipped in insulated packaging with ice packs when necessary. Standard delivery typically takes 2–4 business days within the continental US.
No. All compounds sold by Genesis Peptides are strictly for in vitro and preclinical laboratory research purposes only. They are not approved for human consumption, therapeutic use, or diagnostic purposes. By purchasing, you confirm the products will be used solely for legitimate research applications.
A Certificate of Analysis (COA) is a document issued by our analytical laboratory that reports the results of all quality control tests performed on a specific lot of product. Each COA includes HPLC chromatograms, mass spectra, endotoxin results, and quantification data where applicable. COAs are available in our COA Library for every lot we have shipped.
Yes. We offer volume pricing for universities, research institutions, and laboratories with recurring needs. Discounts begin at 100+ units and scale with volume. Contact our team for a custom quote tailored to your research requirements.
FOR RESEARCH USE ONLY — Products are sold exclusively for in vitro and preclinical laboratory research. Not for human consumption or administration. Not intended for diagnostic or therapeutic use. These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA.
Snapshot Survodutide is a dual GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist studied for its role in integrated metabolic regulation. By combining appetite and satiety signaling with hepatic energy and lipid metabolism pathways, it has benefits on weight reduction, glycemic control, cardiometabolic risk, and fatty liver through coordinated endocrine signaling rather than single-pathway modulation. What Is Survodutide? Survodutide is a synthetic, long-acting dual-agonist peptide designed to activate both the glucagon receptor (GCGR) and the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) [1]. This dual-receptor profile distinguishes survodutide from single-pathway incretin peptides and reflects an approach aimed at integrating energy expenditure and appetite regulation. Side Effect Profile The side-effect profile observed with survodutide in clinical research appears consistent with other peptides that engage GLP-1–based pathways, with gastrointestinal effects such as nausea and discomfort reported as the most common events [2]. These effects are dose-dependent and prominent during rapid dose escalation. Compared with GLP-1–only agonists, glucagon receptor activity introduces additional considerations related to hepatic glucose output and energy metabolism. Survodutide Benefits Weight Loss Survodutide enhances central satiety cues, slows gastric emptying, and reduces meal size, contributing to weight loss. A Phase 2 RCT evaluated the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of survodutide in 387 adults overweight or obese without diabetes. Participants were randomized to once-weekly subcutaneous survodutide (0.6 mg, 2.4 mg, 3.6 mg, or 4.8 mg) or placebo for 46 weeks (20 weeks dose escalation, 26 weeks maintenance) [3]. Survodutide administration resulted in: Statistically significant, dose-dependent weight loss across all levels (p < 0.05). Statistically significant, dose-dependent waist circumference decreases across all levels (p < 0.05). Statistically significant, dose-dependent blood pressure drops at 2.4 mg and higher (p < 0.05). Mild adverse events in 91% of participants versus 75% of placebo. Results can be visualized below: Parameter Placebo Survodutide doses 0.6 mg 2.4 mg 3.6 mg 4.8 mg Bodyweight (%) -2.8 -6.2 -12.5 -13.2 -14.9 Waist Circumference (cm) -4.0 -8.3 -15.0 -15.0 -16.0 Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) -2.5 -6.2 -8.1 -8.7 -8.6 Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) -1.9 -3.3 -4.4 -4.3 -4.8 The trial demonstrates that dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonism produces clinically meaningful, dose-dependent weight loss with an acceptable tolerability profile. Cardiometabolic Benefits and Glycemic Control Currently, clinical trials are underway to investigate survodutide’s effects on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with cardiovascular or kidney disease [4]. However, the peptide has been well studied in its potential for glycemic control. A Phase 2 RCT evaluated the dose response effects of survodutide on glycemic control and body weight in 413 adults with type 2 diabetes receiving background metformin therapy [5]. Participants were randomized to once or twice-weekly survodutide at varying doses, placebo, or open-label semaglutide (1.0 mg once weekly) for 16 weeks. Survodutide resulted in: Clinically significant reductions in HbA1c across all dose groups, and comparable reductions to semaglutide at low doses. Mild gastrointestinal side effects at a higher rate (77.8%) than placebo (52.5%) or semaglutide (52.0%). Slower dose escalation helps mitigate dose-related gastrointestinal effects. Results can be visualized below: Parameter Placebo Survodutide weekly doses 0.3 mg 1x 0.9 mg 1x 1.8 mg 1x 2.7 mg 1x 1.2 mg 2x 1.8 mg 2x HbA1C (mmol) -1.62 -9.92 -15.95 -18.72 -17.01 -17.84 -18.38 Bodyweight Reduction > 5% - 8% 38% 42.3% 46% 56.9% 57.1% Bodyweight Reduction > 10% - 2% 6% 13.5% 16.0% 25.5% 34.7% The findings support further development of dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonism for metabolic disease management. Fatty Liver Fatty liver disease is closely linked to insulin resistance, excess caloric intake, and impaired lipid oxidation, pathways directly influenced by survodutide. A Phase 2 RCT evaluated the safety and efficacy of survodutide in 293 adults with biopsy-confirmed MASH and liver fibrosis. Participants were randomized to receive once-weekly subcutaneous survodutide (2.4 mg, 4.8 mg, or 6.0 mg) or placebo over 48 weeks, consisting of a 24-week dose-escalation phase followed by a 24-week maintenance phase [2]. Results showed that survodutide: Histologically improved MASH without worsening of fibrosis across all levels (p < 0.001) Reduced ≥30% of liver fat in 67% of participants, (vs. 14% with placebo). Improved fibrosis by at least one stage in 36% of participants (vs. 22% with placebo). Results by dosage can be visualized below: Parameter Placebo Survodutide doses (once weekly) 2.4 mg 4.8 mg 6.0 mg Histological Improvement (%) 14 47 62 43 Fibrosis Improvement by One Stage or more (%) 22 34 36 34 GI adverse events were common: Nausea (66%) Diarrhea (49%) Vomiting (41%) Serious adverse events occurred at similar rates in the survodutide and placebo groups. Dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonism with survodutide significantly improved features of MASH and reduced liver fat, prompting larger phase 3 trials for liver-related metabolic disease. References 1 Wharton, S., le Roux, C. W., Kosiborod, M. N., Platz, E., Brueckmann, M., Jastreboff, A. M., et al. (2025) Survodutide for treatment of obesity: rationale and design of two randomized phase 3 clinical trials (SYNCHRONIZETM-1 and -2). Obesity (Silver Spring), Wiley 33, 67–77 2 Sanyal, A. J., Bedossa, P., Fraessdorf, M., Neff, G. W., Lawitz, E., Bugianesi, E., et al. (2024) A phase 2 randomized trial of survodutide in MASH and fibrosis. N. Engl. J. Med., Massachusetts Medical Society 391, 311–319 3 le Roux, C. W., Steen, O., Lucas, K. J., Startseva, E., Unseld, A. and Hennige, A. M. (2024) Glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist survodutide for obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol., Elsevier BV 12, 162–173 4 Kosiborod, M. N., Platz, E., Wharton, S., le Roux, C. W., Brueckmann, M., Ajaz Hussain, S., et al. (2024) Survodutide for the treatment of obesity: Rationale and design of the SYNCHRONIZE cardiovascular outcomes trial. JACC Heart Fail., Elsevier BV 12, 2101–2109 5 Blüher, M., Rosenstock, J., Hoefler, J., Manuel, R. and Hennige, A. M. (2024) Dose-response effects on HbA1c and bodyweight reduction of survodutide, a dual glucagon/GLP-1 receptor agonist, compared with placebo and open-label semaglutide in people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised clinical trial. Diabetologia, Springer Science and Business Media LLC 67, 470–482
What Is Tesamorelin and How Does It Work? Tesamorelin is a synthetic 44-amino acid analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), with a longer duration of action in the body. It stimulates the pituitary to release growth hormone, increasing insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) production. Elevated IGF-1 supports fat breakdown, glucose metabolism, and cell survival [1]. Tesamorelin Research Originally approved to treat HIV-associated lipodystrophy, tesamorelin has been shown to significantly reduce visceral adipose tissue [1]. Emerging research is now exploring its broader therapeutic potential, including liver health, cardiometabolic risk, and neurological health. Reducing Visceral Fat Clinical trials consistently show that tesamorelin reduces visceral adipose tissue (VAT) in people with HIV and central adiposity. Across studies, about 70% of participants were considered “responders,” achieving at least an 8% VAT reduction within 26 weeks [2], [3]. Importantly, the benefits extended beyond fat volume: tesamorelin also improved fat quality, with significant increases in VAT density compared to placebo [2]. This shift suggests a move toward smaller, healthier adipocytes and a more favorable metabolic profile [2]. These effects were observed regardless of baseline fat levels. In a large phase III trial of 806 participants, most experienced meaningful VAT reductions [3]. A separate trial of 412 subjects found that tesamorelin produced a selective 1-kg reduction in visceral fat over six months, with little effect on subcutaneous or limb fat [4]. Participants also reported less distress about abdominal size [4]. Overall, tesamorelin demonstrates clinically significant, treatment-dependent benefits for both VAT quantity and quality, although gains tend to diminish after discontinuation [5]. Liver Health Benefits Tesamorelin has shown consistent liver-related benefits, particularly in people with HIV. In one study, higher baseline VAT was associated with elevated liver enzymes (AST and ALT) [3]. Participants who responded to tesamorelin with significant VAT reduction also demonstrated improvements in AST and ALT. These hepatic benefits persisted even after treatment discontinuation despite partial VAT regain [3]. Randomized controlled trials corroborate this. In HIV-associated fatty liver disease, tesamorelin reduced liver fat and prevented fibrosis progression over 12 months [6]. Liver biopsies revealed upregulation of oxidative phosphorylation pathways, enhanced mitochondrial function, and downregulation of genes tied to inflammation, tissue repair, and cell proliferation—all processes linked to fibrosis and liver injury [6]. Importantly, tesamorelin also shifted gene expression toward patterns associated with a more favorable liver cancer prognosis [6]. A 12-month double-blind trial confirmed these findings, showing a 4.1% absolute and 37% relative reduction in hepatic fat fraction. By the study's end, 35% of the tesamorelin-treated participants achieved liver fat <5%, compared with only 4% of placebo participants [7]. Cardiometabolic Health and Muscle Mass In people with HIV and antiretroviral therapy-associated lipodystrophy, tesamorelin also improved lipid profiles, improving triglycerides and cholesterol ratios without impairing glucose tolerance [4]. Similar effects were seen in abdominally obese adults with reduced growth hormone (GH) secretion, where 12 months of therapy reduced VAT by 35 cm² while preserving subcutaneous fat [8]. This was accompanied by reductions in triglycerides, C-reactive protein, and carotid intima-media thickness, indicating improvements in systemic inflammation and cardiovascular risk. IGF-1 levels rose significantly, confirming GH pathway activation, while glucose measures remained stable [8]. In type 2 diabetes, tesamorelin modestly improved lipid levels without impairing insulin sensitivity [9]. Additional findings suggest enhanced mitochondrial and muscle function, with improved phosphocreatine recovery after exercise [10]. Pooled phase III trial analyses confirm durable VAT reductions, lipid improvements, and better body image ratings [11]. Furthermore, reductions in excess visceral fat were linked to lower predicted 10-year atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk, largely mediated by cholesterol improvements [12]. Neurological Health The natural age-related decline of GHRH, GH, and IGF-1 may contribute to age-related cognitive changes. This explains why tesamorelin also improves brain health. Aside from improving neurological health through metabolic changes and immunomodulation, tesamorelin also positively affects neurotransmitter balance. In antiretroviral therapy-treated HIV patients, abdominal obesity was linked to neurocognitive impairment. In a six-month trial, tesamorelin-treated participants achieved a significant waist circumference reduction and improvement in cognition [13]. In older adults and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), 20 weeks of tesamorelin treatment improved cognition and neurochemistry. The cognitive improvements corresponded with higher brain GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), increased N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate in the frontal cortex, and reduced myo-inositol in the posterior cingulate cortex [14]. In another trial enrolling 152 adults, 20 weeks of tesamorelin improved executive function and verbal memory, and was associated with a 117% IGF-1 increase, reduced body fat, and mild adverse events [15]. Other studies suggest GHRH and growth hormone-based therapies may promote peripheral nerve regeneration by supporting axonal growth, limiting muscle atrophy, and enhancing repair processes [16].
Snapshot Tesamorelin, CJC-1295 No DAC, and ipamorelin are a combination of investigational peptides that engage complementary growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) and ghrelin receptor (GHS) pathways to modulate endogenous growth hormone pulsatility. Mechanistic studies support GHRH–GHS cross-talk, though direct clinical evaluation of this three-peptide combination remains limited. What Is Tesamorelin? Tesamorelin is a synthetic analog of growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) consisting of 44 amino acids, designed to stimulate endogenous growth hormone (GH) secretion from the anterior pituitary. By activating the GHRH receptor, tesamorelin promotes pulsatile GH release and downstream increases in insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), while preserving physiologic feedback regulation. Tesamorelin has been studied in metabolic research contexts for its ability to metabolize fat while maintaining muscle mass, particularly in HIV patients [1]. What Is CJC-1295 Without DAC? CJC-1295 is a synthetic peptide analog of growth hormone–releasing hormone that retains the core bioactive sequence of native GHRH but lacks the drug affinity complex (DAC) modification. As a result, it has a shorter functional half-life and more closely mimics physiologic, pulsatile GH signaling rather than sustained elevation. By binding to the GHRH receptor on pituitary somatotrophs, CJC-1295 without DAC stimulates endogenous growth hormone release and downstream IGF-1 production in a natural and feedback-regulated manner [2]. In research settings, it is often used as a tool to engage the GHRH axis without prolonged GH exposure. What Is Ipamorelin? Ipamorelin is a synthetic pentapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that selectively activates the ghrelin (GHS-R1a) receptor in the hypothalamus and pituitary. Through this pathway, ipamorelin promotes pulsatile growth hormone release without significantly stimulating other pituitary hormones such as cortisol or prolactin [3]. In research models, ipamorelin is a commonly studied complement to GHRH analogs when examining coordinated regulation of the somatotropic axis. Synergy This three-peptide combination is best understood as a multi-node strategy to engage the somatotropic axis. Two components, tesamorelin and CJC-1295 No DAC, are GHRH-pathway agonists, while ipamorelin activates the ghrelin/GHS-R1a pathway, a distinct control system that can amplify GH release through complementary signaling. Tesamorelin and CJC-1295 Both tesamorelin and CJC-1295 without DAC stimulate the GHRH receptor on pituitary somatotrophs, via adenylyl cyclase activation and increased cAMP, supporting physiologic GH pulse generation when pituitary function is intact. Ipamorelin The most evidence-supported synergy in this stack comes from combining GHRH receptor activation (tesamorelin/CJC-1295 without DAC) with GHS-R1a activation (ipamorelin). GHS compounds and ghrelin receptor agonism stimulate GH release via signaling that is typically described as PLC/second-messenger (Ca²⁺/DAG)–linked, distinct from the cAMP-centric GHRH pathway [4]. Controlled mechanistic studies show that co-activation of the GHRH receptor and the GHS receptor can amplify intracellular signaling beyond either pathway alone. In a receptor-defined cell system expressing both receptors, activation of a GHS pathway (including ghrelin) potentiated the cAMP response to GHRH. The cAMP response approximately doubled compared with GHRH alone, suggesting receptor-level cross-talk that enhances somatotroph responsiveness [5]. This type of finding provides a strong rationale for pairing a GHRH analog with a selective GH secretagogue like ipamorelin when the goal is to model enhanced pulsatile GH dynamics rather than sustained GH elevation. Aside from muscle anabolism, CJC-1295 combined with ipamorelin may also activate chondrocytes and osteoblast differentiation, suggesting potential use for cartilage and bone regeneration [6]. Evidence for Combination Direct studies evaluating tesamorelin + CJC-1295 No DAC + ipamorelin as a three-agent combination are not well represented in the peer-reviewed literature. What does exist is: Evidence for GHRH + GHS/ghrelin synergy at the signaling level. Clinical and translational research on tesamorelin alone as a GHRH analog modulating GH/IGF-1 dynamics and downstream metabolic/immune markers in specific populations. CJC-1295–class GHRH analogs sustaining stimulation of GH/IGF-1. Broader endocrine literature describing ghrelin/GHS pharmacology and why GHS receptor agonism can amplify GH pulse amplitude. Given this, the most defensible conclusion is that the triple stack is mechanistically plausible, but not yet validated as a combined regimen in controlled clinical trials. Dosage At a conceptual level, allocating more total mass to the GHRH-analog component (e.g., tesamorelin 6 mg alongside lower-dose CJC-1295 No DAC and ipamorelin) can be interpreted as emphasizing primary drive through the traditional GHRH pathway, with ipamorelin positioned as a complementary amplifier via GHS-R1a cross-talk. Beyond that general framework, the optimal ratio is not established in public evidence and should be treated as an empirical design choice rather than a settled standard. References: 1 Adrian, S., Scherzinger, A., Sanyal, A., Lake, J. E., Falutz, J., Dubé, M. P., et al. (2019) The growth hormone releasing hormone analogue, tesamorelin, decreases muscle fat and increases muscle area in adults with HIV. J. Frailty Aging, SERDI 8, 154–159 2 Teichman, S. L., Neale, A., Lawrence, B., Gagnon, C., Castaigne, J.-P. and Frohman, L. A. (2006) Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 799–805 3 Raun, K., Hansen, B. S., Johansen, N. L., Thøgersen, H., Madsen, K., Ankersen, M., et al. (1998) Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur. J. Endocrinol., Oxford University Press (OUP) 139, 552–561 4 Akalu, Y., Molla, M. D., Dessie, G. and Ayelign, B. (2020) Physiological effect of ghrelin on body systems. Int. J. Endocrinol., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2020, 1385138 5 Cunha, S. R. and Mayo, K. E. (2002) Ghrelin and growth hormone (GH) secretagogues potentiate GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)-induced cyclic adenosine 3’,5'-monophosphate production in cells expressing transfected GHRH and GH secretagogue receptors. Endocrinology, The Endocrine Society 143, 4570–4582 6 Rahman, O. F., Lee, S. J. and Seeds, W. A. (2026) Therapeutic peptides in orthopaedics: Applications, challenges, and future directions. J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg. Glob. Res. Rev., Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 10, e25.00236